neural interface between the brain and the environment--we speculate that in the future
the symbionic mind will used to channel wireless, virtual reality information directly to
the cortex, bypassing existing sensory channels. The result will be participation in virtual
reality experiences in cyberspace creating seamless, alternate realities indistinguishable
from reality. Such eventualities will inevitably lead to innovative altered states, fresh
conscious perceptions, new experiences of the sublime, and the possible merging of
human realities into a single consciousness, necessitating a redefinition of individuality.
More exciting is the possibility of real-time feedback from the cortex through the
symbionic mind to constantly tailor virtual reality experiences. Might the functions of our
existing nervous system eventually migrate to the symbionic mind to feed the creation of
a new personal caretaker--a virtual "guardian angel"--to guide us though the new
millennium?
idea of Symbionic Minds was first presented. In the original paper (Cartwright, 1980a)
and in subsequent papers (Cartwright, 1980b; 1983a; 1988, 1989), intelligence amplifiers
were visualized connected either directly or indirectly to human brains, capable of
independent, intelligent action, existing symbiotically, and making us to some extent,
bionic.
present day computers and will be wired directly or indirectly to the human brain for both
input and output. These brain prostheses will amplify and strengthen all the intellectual
abilities we now take for granted as comprising intelligent human activity. They can be
called "symbionic" minds (from the words symbiotic + bionic) because of the close,
interdependent relationships that will almost certainly exist between them and us, and
because they will make us, to some degree, bionic.
new science of "symbionics". Originally conceived as comprising four independent
research areas, the concept now embraces the following seven:
2. brain pacemakers or cerebellar stimulators,
3. biocybernetic communication,
4. neurometrics,
5. artificial intelligence
6. biotechnology, and
7. virtual reality.
now used to enable amputees to control artificial limbs in an almost natural manner. The
aim of this research is to create artificial limbs that respond to the will of the patient by
finding in the stump of the severed limb the brain's own natural impulse called the
myoelectric signal or electromyogram (EMG), improving it through amplification or
other means, and using it to control electromechanical devices in the prosthetic appliance.
An obvious use would be to have it control an artificial limb called a myoelectric arm
(Glass, 1986).
arm into a fully functional artificial replacement. The Leverhume Oxford Southampton
Hand has been developed at the Oxford Orthopaedic Engineering Centre as a myoelectric
replacement arm for amputees. It is designed to allow the patient adaptive control over
hand functions in a prosthetic that resembles the natural model. The Southampton hand
can generate a large number of independent movements with a very small amount of user
input (Kyberd & Chappell, 1994).
from Motion Control Inc. This myoelectric arm has a near-natural look, feel and use. The
Utah Arm can pronate, supinate, be exchanged for other terminal devices and can operate
on a small 9-volt battery. Muscular control of artificial devices is a current reality
(Motion Control Inc, 1999).
control mentally an extensive assortment of useful devices.
as chronic cerebellar stimulators, followed the creation of cardiac pacemakers and were
based on research involving the electrical stimulation of the brain. Chronic cerebellar
stimulation (CCS) has been used with children with spastic movements to help them
achieve some measure of control over their muscle functions. Such mental pacemakers
are now being used to prevent patients from falling into deep depressions, to avoid
epileptic seizures, and to reduce intractable pain. Several patients who suffer from
psychosis and for whom chemotherapy has failed, have already been treated with CCS to
help them on the path to normal behavior. The technique has been used with neurotics,
schizophrenics, and others who have experienced the feelings of extreme anger often
associated with psychosis or violent behavior (Heath, 1977). Other cerebellar stimulators
have been implanted to minimize the spasticity and athetosis associated with cerebral
palsy (Cooper et al., 1976). In the patients treated for cerebral palsy, significant
improvements were noted in both cognition and memory (Cooper & Goldman, 1987). In
addition, it has been suggested that other forms of brain stimulation (CSAT - chronic
stimulation of anterior nucleus of thalamus) might profitably be employed to reduce other
and obsessive- compulsive behavior (Cooper et al., 1985).
Partly related to cortical stimulation is the experimental work on electrical muscle
stimulation which permits electrical impulses to be fed directly to inactive muscles
paralyzed by injured spinal cords (Petrofsky, Phillips, & Heaton, 1984; Petrofsky,
Phillips & Stafford, 1984; Phillips & Petrofsky, 1984). (A 1985 TV-movie called "First
Steps", starring Judd Hirsch and Amy Steel popularized the research of bioengineer Dr.
Jerrold Petrofsky of Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio, and his attempt to make
student Nan Davis walk again.)
Brain pacemakers have been used successfully for the treatment of Parkinson's disease.
Patients with Parkinson's exhibit tremors in many areas of their body, associated with
overactive cells deep inside the thalamus of brain. Recently, one of the most highly
effective treatments to reduce these tremors is to have a deep brain implant, where
patients could have an electrode implanted in the thalamus that constantly stimulates
these overactive cells and inhibits them from firing. Instead of destroying cell tissue,
these stimulators allow patients to function normally by reducing or eliminating tremors
caused by these abnormally overactive cells.
disease with nearly 80% of patients reducing tremors, yielding marked benefits without
adverse side effects common with medication (Kumar, R., Lozano, A.M., Kim, Y.J.,
Hutchison, W.D., Sime, E., Halket, E., Lang, A.E., 1998; Arle, J.E. & Alterman, R.L.,
1999).
stimulators to help alleviate specific medical conditions points the way to a potentially
bright future for the more complex models of tomorrow.
underway in an attempt to interpret brain wave patterns to link them to specific thoughts.
In early work at Stanford University, researchers were able to have a subject that was
connected to a computer screen move a white dot around simply by thinking about it
(Pinneo et al., 1975). One obvious goal of biocybernetic communication would be to use
thought to control a wide variety of appliances. For example, it is now possible to harness
thought to facilitate a broad assortment of human activities from controlling video game
actions to controlling computers.
IBVA
http://www.ibva.com) has developed a method for harnessing
signals from the brain and using it to control computer technology. The Interactive
Brainwave Visual Analyzer (IBVA) is an interactive biofeedback control of brainwave
functions. The IBVA picks up electrical brain activity through a scalp monitor and can
joysticks, buttons, and any other electronic device. Many recording artists have used the
IBVA system to control midi synthesizers and digital audio mixers in order to create
music with their minds. Others have used The IBVA system to control CD players in
their homes. The IBVA might be the next step towards the symbionic mind (DeVito,
1999).
Dr. Roy Bakay
the fall of 1998, Bakay successfully implanted a chip inside the head of a paralyzed
patient. The patient, J.R., had suffered a stroke and was completely paralyzed, unable to
speak or move though he retained his cognitive abilities. Bakay hypothesized that if it
could be determined which area of his brain controlled the firing of his muscles, then he
could intercept this signal and train J.R. to use his own brain to control a computer.
Bakay was successful not once, but twice. By using a high-resolution brain scan (MRI),
Bakay determined a highly active area of J.R.'s brain in the motor cortex (Wiechman,
1998; Herberman, 1999). Bakay implanted two small cones that transformed chemical
neural signals into radio transmissions, which was picked up by the computer. Each cone
controlled one axis of movement in two dimensions (up-down, and right-left). The radio
signal was converted into an electrical signal in the computer, which controlled the
movement of the mouse. J.R., without the ability to move or speak, could control a
computer mouse and type on an on-screen keyboard to communicate (Wiechman, 1998;
Herberman, 1999). J.R. could communicate effectively, albeit slowly with individuals, a
feat not previously thought possible. Bakay's contribution to technologies advancing the
symbionic mind demonstrates direct computer control from patterns of thought. J.R.
demonstrates a telepathic (or more specifically a telekinetic) ability to control a computer
and use it to communicate with others. Brain control of computers is no longer limited to
the realm of science fiction.
Dr. Kevin Warwick
England was placed in the history books as the world's first cyborg. In August of 1998,
Professor Warwick underwent surgery to implant a small transponder (23mm long and
3mm in diameter) encased in glass inserted under the skin of his arm.
allowed Warwick to interact with machines, even becoming part machine himself. This
silicon chip would communicate with various computer receivers, identifying Warwick
without his intervention. When he entered his house, he would be personally greeted,
room lights would turn on in his presence and off in his absence and other individualized
effects (Cuen, 1998; McClimans, 1998; Witt, 1999). Warwick became a cyborg, part man
and part machine allowing for automatic, ubiquitous communication between the two.
implant that he received was merely an electronic marker or tag and did not demonstrate
any intrinsically intelligent behavior. His chip implant is only semantically different from
carrying a smart ID card outside the body. Likewise, Warwick could not assert control
over this chip, nor did he have any direct impact on its operation.
control of the human brain (c.f. Birch, 1989). This is the aim of Erich Sutter's Brain
Response Interface (BRI) unit being developed at the Smith-Kettlewell Institute of Visual
Sciences in San Francisco. The prototype device uses four electrodes implanted in a
patient's brain to determine which computer command the patient wants executed. The
current configuration makes available some 2,048 user-programmable control options
(Rosenfeld, 1989). Success in this endeavor, of course, will depend on deciphering the
nerve code of mental activity.
MIT Media Laboratory ( http://www.media.mit.edu/wearables/)and now at the University
of Toronto Humanistic Intelligence Lab) developed methods of exporting his field of
vision, this does not strictly constitute a symbionic mind. The extension of this work,
however, from wearable computing to its control by the human cortex would constitute a
definite step towards the creation of the symbionic mind. Already, Wearable Computing
Project members at the MIT Media Laboratory are investigating the transmission of
computer signals through the human body. The modification of these by the human brain
would constitute a further step towards the symbionic mind.
communication between individuals and machines, and even between individuals, in a
manner similar to telepathy but based on proven scientific principles and sophisticated
technology.
the cortex has produced interesting results. These are achieved by measuring minute
voltage changes that are produced in response to a specific stimulus like a light, a bell, or
a shock, but which are of such small amplitude as to not show up on a conventional
electroencephalogram (EEG). An averaging computer sums the responses over time to
make them stand out against background noise. Since the background noise is random, it
tends to be canceled out. Through the use of this technique, it has now been established
that the long latency response known as the P300 wave (positive potential, 300
millisecond latency) is usually associated with decision-making activity (Lerner, 1984).
Though the wave appears after each decision, it is often delayed when a wrong decision
made a bad decision, to alert us when we are not paying attention (a boon to air traffic
controllers) or to monitor general states of awareness. It is also possible using EPs to
distinguish motor responses from cognitive processes, and decision-making processes
from action components (Taylor, 1979). As its objectivity patient cooperation is not
needed) and non- invasiveness come to be appreciated, more and more clinical
applications of EPs are beginning to appear (Ziporyn, 1981a; 1981b; 1981c), and it is
likely that the number of non-clinical applications will also rise.
recognition, problem solving, and speech comprehension with a view to reproducing
these abilities in computers (Crevier, 1993). During the last decade, there has been a
renewed interest in the study of neural nets to model cortical functions on a computer
(Pagels, 1988). All of these developments will find applications in the creation of the
symbionic mind.
as genetic engineering. In small laboratories around the world, scientists are at work
attempting to use genetic engineering principles to construct tiny biological
microprocessors of protein or "biochips" (Futuristic computer biochips..., 1981;
McAuliffe, 1981, Posa, 1981; Whatever happened to molecular electronics?, 1981;
Milch, n.d., Schick et al., 1988). The advantage is that by using the techniques of
recombinant DNA, very small devices (VSDs) can be assembled with great precision. As
unbelievable as it sounds, such biochips may even be designed to assemble themselves,
perhaps even in three-dimensional forms in the microgravity of outer space (McAlear,
n.d.) If such biochips can be successfully constructed, it is likely they will have higher
density and higher speed, and will consume less power than conventional chips (Drexler,
1986). This in itself will be no mean achievement because of the continuing reduction in
circuit size below that of a living cell. Successful though the silicon chip is, new circuits
the size of molecules and smaller are already being developed which could significantly
damage the silicon chip industry and ultimately lead to the creation of a molecular
computer. Biochips would have a greater probability of successful implantation in the
cortex due to their higher degree of biocompatibility. One company in America has
received a grant from the National Science Foundation for a feasibility study of the
creation of a direct interface between the central nervous system and an integrated circuit.
Their initial plan called for increasing the number of effective electrodes from an 8 x 8
platinum array currently used in clinical trials to an array with 100,000 electrodes. The
development of such technology will depend heavily on the use of an implanted
integrated circuit and state-of-the-art microfabrication or nanotechnological techniques.
The actual device is expected to consist of electrodes connected to an interface of
cultured embryonic nerve cells which can grow three-dimensionally and attach
themselves to mature nerve cells in the brain (EMV Associates, 1981; The next
such a chip to repair itself, DNA codes could be used to program it, and enzymes used to
control it (Biotech..., 1981; Drexler, 1986). Already under development as a first step is a
device called an "optrode" consisting of a polymer waveguide with a photovoltaic tip
capable of photon-electron conversion. Research has been undertaken to study the
feasibility of using such a tiny, photoconducting microelectrode to record the firing of a
single neuron, or perhaps even to cause it to fire (McAlear, & Wehrung, n.d.). Beyond
recording the firing of a single neuron, the firing patterns of whole neuron cultures can
now be monitored (Gross et al., 1985; Droge et al., 1986).
goal of virtual reality is to create alternate realities by manipulating sensory inputs to
trick the brain into believing it is somewhere else. However, each of these sensory
manipulations, though designed to contribute to the virtual reality experience, teaches us
about how to manage sensory input to the cortex.
directly, with perceptual and thought processes individually, and with intellectual activity
primarily. Like other media, they are steadily converging (Brand, 1988). Once a merger
is effected culminating in a routine way of interfacing with the brain either directly using
implanted (or grown in place) electrodes, or indirectly by picking up brain waves with
external sensors (biocybernetic communication and neurometrics), the symbionic mind
will have been born.
interfaced with the human brain, capable of intelligent action. The most difficult task in
its creation will be the design and construction of the interface required to link these
devices to the human cortex. Such a complex interface will no doubt represent the major
component of the symbionic mind, and the creation of a wide range of standard and
optional accessories to attach to it will probably prove to be a comparatively easy task.
Such auxiliary brain prostheses or symbionic minds are beginning to be used for
appliance control (IBVA) computation, monitoring of particular body functions,
problem-solving, data retrieval, general intelligence amplification, and inter- and intra-
individual communication. The ultimate revolutionary advance may even be the direct,
electronic transmission of human thought!
easy to see how people with failing memories might benefit from supplementary aids - in
this case tiny mind prostheses or "add-on" brains with extra memory storage and better
retrieval. Like a memory crutch for the brain, the symbionic mind could be invaluable for
1982; 1983b) not only for average students but for gifted students as well (Cartwright,
1983c).
speculate as to their full range of uses. Because the symbionic mind will be able to
interpret our thoughts, our very wishes will become its commands. Thus it will be able to
take dictation directly from our thoughts, improve them through editing, and like the
voice-processors of today, rearrange whole paragraphs, perform spelling checks, and
supervise the typing of final documents. To some degree, the human brain may be limited
by its small number of input senses. But a symbionic mind connected to the brain to
amplify its abilities, improve its skills, and complement its intelligence, could be used to
handle additional sensory inputs, and to make low level decisions about them, discarding
irrelevant data, and passing on more important information to the brain itself. In the
future, it may be possible to build into the symbionic mind totally artificial senses and
connect them directly to the brain. These artificial senses would simulate most of our
existing senses but would bypass currently available receptor organs, in a manner similar
to way in which Flanagan' s Neurophone is reported to input sound directly to the brain,
bypassing the auditory nerve (Begich, 1997). Some of these might include components of
our existing senses; others will be totally new and the line distinguishing one sense from
another may become increasingly blurred.
remain, for the moment, in the realm of speculation. However, examples might include
senses to detect currently invisible hazards like harmful levels of radiation or pollution in
our immediate environment, or to relay television transmissions or Internet information
directly to our brains without the aid of conventional monitors. TV sets and video
monitors are merely converters: they convert signals we are unable to receive in our
natural state into visual signals on the screen which can be input through our eyes. From
the eyes, the signals are converted to electrochemical impulses and sent to the visual
cortex for analysis. Imagine a small device which could receive signals, but instead of
displaying them on a video screen, could channel them directly to the human cortex. The
sensation of "seeing" the pictures would still exist but one's eyes would be freed for
watching other things. Such devices would not be limited to television and computers but
might include radio and telephone reception as well. In all these instances, the normal
sensory inputs of eyes and ears would be bypassed.
University of Florida to find ways of implanting up to 100,000 miniature photovoltaic
cells to stimulate previously unused parts of the retina in cases of retinal blindness. The
Dobelle Institute ( http://www.dobelle.com) has developed a visual device that would use
neuro-stimulation to create artificial vision for the blind. Early developments of the
technology are crude, only allowing differentiation between light and darkness, however,
the implications of this development are far reaching. It may soon be possible for science
to bypass the eyes entirely and feed visual information (from a camera mounted on
produce a more effective visual prosthesis, the perfection of such a technology has much
wider implications.
fitted with electronic ear stimulators to stimulate auditory nerves in an attempt to improve
hearing. Called cochlear implants, the technology has been proven to help the profoundly
deaf hear and many who have had the implants have reported that they are glad they did
and would not be without it.
variety of household gadgets. The symbionic mind will provide a "thought switch" to
enable us to control appliances merely by thinking about them, like the commercial
products demonstrated by IBVA.
switch channels (feeding the signal directly to the brain), answer telephone calls and
initiate them, and keep household inventories. It will guard us from a number of dangers
and protect us in a wide variety of situations. At a party it will monitor our blood alcohol
level and warn us when we have had too much to drink. It will keep an eye on other
bodily functions including digestion and blood sugar levels, and warn us of impending
illness, undue stress, or possible heart attacks. It will guard us while we sleep, listening
for prowlers, and sensing the air for smoke. It will attend to all household functions and
perhaps ultimately will direct the activities of less intelligent household robots which are
sure to come into existence. It will share with us its vast memory store and its ability to
recall information virtually instantly - information we thought we had forgotten. It will
put us in touch automatically with huge data banks containing information it does not
possess itself. It will do math calculations, household budgets, business accounts, and
even make monthly payments for us automatically. It will update its own information
daily by scanning a number of information sources, perhaps listening to its own
information channel, perhaps digesting local newspapers, sifting for information which it
feels it should bring to our attention, helping us make sense of the world around us. It
will provide a whole new dimension of living to quadriplegics allowing them to perform
many of the routine daily tasks essential to life, and restoring to them some measure of
control over their lives. It will change the entire realm of communications as we know it
today. Merely thinking of someone you wish to talk with by telephone will initiate a
search by the symbionic mind to locate that person anywhere in the world and establish
direct contact. Though physical telephones will be avoided, the two symbionic minds will
be in direct communication over the cellular telephone network, and thoughts will flow
between beings in seemingly telepathic fashion; indeed this may be the closest we will
ever come to true telepathy. How ironic that even if telepathy does not exist, we may
nevertheless be able to simulate it anyway.
information can have a direct effect on the systems of the body. Heart rate may increase,
respiration quicken, and palms perspire. Improved VR experiences may be tailored to
effect specific changes in other bodily senses like smell or balance.
symbionic mind for direct input to the brain. Visual, tactile, auditory, olfactory, and
gustatory stimuli could be transmitted directly to the cortex. An example might be
infrared information transmitted directly to the symbionic brain and overlaid on the visual
system giving the user the semblance of infrared vision.
to control the inputs to VR to enable the technology to tailor or individualize the
perceptual experience. For example, a person in a state of fright because of some VR-
related phenomenon would experience particular Galvanic Skin Responses (GSR), EEG-
readings, increased heart rate, adrenaline levels, and orienting responses which can be
detected by the VR apparatus to re-render the environment to help stabilize the user. In
this way, VR could be used adaptively to protect the user from harm.
receive broadcast or narrowcast VR. Broadcast VR would transmit a single experience to
multiple recipients; narrowcast VR would transmit multiple experiences to a single user.
addressing of every individual. Perhaps each with their own Internet Protocol (IP)
address for electronic identification, like computers on the Internet of today. In the past,
people telephoned a location and asked if a person was there. Today with digital cellular
telephony we phone a person and ask where they are. This new technology facilitated a
paradigmatic shift from using the telephone to dial a person instead of a place. Currently
IP addresses denote physical locations. In the future, they will represent personal
symbionic contacts with specific individuals.
extra brainpower during sleep to process information. An analogue now exists with the
SETI@Home project from UC Berkeley where millions of unused home computers work
nightly to process chunks of astronomical data.
our very being. It will not seem to be foreign to us in any way, nor will it pose to us any
kind of threat by trying to take us over any more than would our own brain. The
symbionic mind will be as much a part of us as a hand or an eye, and it will seem to us
simply our own brain doing the thinking. It will be transparent to us. We will not be
aware of any separate entity, nor of any other change except an increased ability to
perform those intellectual asks we have always performed, and a new capability to
accomplish those which were previously impossible.
and at our direction. It will be our constant companion and friend, conscience and alter-
ego. The science of symbionics culminating in the development of the symbionic mind
may well mark the next significant step in our evolution to a higher plane of existence,
and the dawn of a new era.
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