Nanotechnology, according to Drexler, can liberate human beings from the
constraints of the physical world while cyberspace – a shared virtual reality experience –
will allow for the creation of a unified, global society. Both technologies take different
roads to the same destination: the merging of mind and matter to form a new post-human
reality. These technologies will provide instant access to new realities, reengineer
communication, question the necessity of planning, force the end of work, and create
unified consciousness.
Nanotechnology will allow humans to create any physical object. While
nanotechnology changes environments to create new perceptions, cyberspace changes the
user’s perceptions to create new environments. Cyberspace is the true conduit for human
imagination where fiction becomes fact. Each technology allows for the ultimate
convergence of all communication modalities and each removes the need to 'measure
twice and cut once,' redefining our methods of experimentation.
While nanotechnology may conquer premature physical death, continuously
repairing the human body, cyberspace may conquer psychological death, linking human
minds around the globe. In combination, the two technologies may converge to form a
catalyst for the next stage in human evolution but will this be our paramount heaven or
our ultimate hell?
-Arthur C. Clarke, Profiles of the Future
Nanotechnology and cyberspace are two technologies that are going to
significantly alter what society defines as human. Each brings a utopian and dystopian
vision. Nanotechnology and cyberspace give human beings complete (perceived) control
over the environment, each by different methods. The convergence of these technologies
is inevitable. Once thought of as science fiction, researchers are currently developing
enabling technologies that will make nanotechnology and cyberspace a feasible reality.
Nanotechnology is the science and engineering pursuit of creating materials,
objects, machines and even living tissues at the scale of one billionth of a meter. As one
billionth of a meter is roughly the size of an atom, nanotechnology refers to the
"…precise and purposeful manipulation of matter at the atomic level (Nanothinc, 1996)."
Dr. K. Eric Drexler, the "father" of nanotechnology theory, refers to the process as
molecular nanotechnology, to emphasize the control over every atom and molecule in the
process of design:
of matter based on molecule-by-molecule control of products and by-
products; the products and processes of molecular manufacturing (Drexler,
et. al. 1991, p. 19).
Simply put, nanotechnology will be the culmination of a process of Science and
engineering evolution that will allow humans to build materials atom by atom, or from
the bottom up. This will allow us to create the lightest, strongest, most flexible and
inexpensive materials that are possible within the general Laws of Nature, and will result
in a revolution of quality and precision.
Currently, when we manufacture materials, refine chemicals or assemble parts in
a factory, we manipulate matter by hammering, melting, twisting, punching and washing
molecules and atoms in clumps of billions of atoms. This immensely inefficient,
wasteful, crude, imprecise and polluting process can be called top-down manufacturing
and is referred to as bulk technology(Drexler, 1986). Bulk technology methods are
imprecise and create polluting by-products such as toxic waste, smokestack emissions,
heat, noise, and wasted scraps to damage the environment in which we live.
In stark contrast, nanotechnology will allow bottom-up manufacturingbased on
molecular technology(Drexler, 1986) which will be efficient and clean. Since
nanotechnology will allow us to build products atom-by-atom in exact order, the resulting
products will require little more energy to create than the natural attractions that form
chemical bonds. The result will be little or no waste by products, and maximal use of raw
materials. Combining disassemblers with assemblers, raw materials will be derived from
virtually any source containing the desired elements and materials.
Since we do not yet have all of the skills and knowledge necessary to bring about
the nanotechnology revolution, perhaps the most accurate definition reflects the process
of moving towards such an eventuality. "nanotechnology therefore indicates the
discourse, hence the science, theory, or study of the skills required to craft matter at the
nanometer scale (Crandall, 1996)."
In 1959 Richard Feynman gave a pivotal talk at Cal Tech, "There's Plenty of
Room at the Bottom." During the talk, he pointed out that there was enough room on the
head of a pin to write the entire contents of not only the Encyclopedia, but all of the
books of the world (at that time) using letters as thin as 5 to 10 atoms thick. Pointing out
the fact that DNA stores enough information to guide the creation of a human being, he
noted that such miniaturization was obviously physically possible and could one day
revolutionize science and engineering. "The principles of physics, as far as I can see, do
not speak against the possibility of maneuvering things atom by atom (Feynman, 1961)."
To achieve the manufacture of a nanoscale machine, Feynman suggested
miniaturization by having a human build a scaled down machine which would control the
creation of another scaled down machine, which would build another scaled down
machine until the process resulted in a nanomachine. Recognizing the limitations of
science and engineering at the time, he offered a $1000 prize to anyone who could
produce a working motor just 1/64thof an inch in size. While the prize did not initially
result in a breakthrough of nanotechnology, it paved the way for the legitimate pursuit of
a nanotechnology. More recently, the Feynman Prize has been awarded to breakthroughs
in nanoscale design, nanocomputing and molecular materials design.
In 1986, K. Eric Drexler wrote Engines of Creation: the Coming Era of
Nanotechnologyin which he described in detail how nanotechnology could work by
using the principles of protein machines as a guide. At the cellular level, ribosomes
(protein machines) make copies of DNA instructions on RNA protein strands. The
protein machines then carry out the construction of new organic matter (humans, trees,
animals, flowers…) according to the specifications on the RNA instruction set.
Drexler pointed out that protein machines make very few errors, are efficient and
do not waste energy or resources, unlike our current bulk technologymanufacturing tools
and machines. By using the science of protein replication, he suggested that machines,
computers and robots could be created or self-assembled at a molecular scale. This
result in a new revolution of engineering.
The biological approach to nanotechnology would require a thorough
understanding of the design of protein machines at the cellular level. By mastering the
design of custom proteins, humans could learn to encode design specifications in DNA
and use nature's cellular machinery to carry out the construction of a particular design.
Drexler (1986) described this as first generation nanotechnology and pointed out that the
drawback of protein machines lies in limited resistance to heat, radiation, and harsh
conditions. For nanotechnology to be truly revolutionary, self-assembling machines
ought to be able to withstand harsh or adverse conditions during self-replication and
construction of materials.
Drexler described nanoscale machines called universal assemblersand their
deconstructive counterparts, universal disassemblerswhich would be made not of protein
but of more durable materials perhaps not yet invented by humans (Drexler, 1986). These
machines would carry out the same functions as protein machines but would be more
resilient and able to carry out new and more advanced capabilities for manipulating
materials, atom by atom, molecule by molecule.
By using molecular computers to direct assemblers to self-replicate and build
parts of a pre-designed instruction set (similar to a DNA strand), theoretically anything of
which a human could conceive could be built from the ground up. New materials could
be created to be free of imperfections, stronger than diamond, malleable, and even lighter
than today's lightest materials. The only limit to a universal assembler's capability would
be human imagination, and a precise set of programmed instructions to be carried out by
a molecular computer.
Where clones or identical copies of an object are required by humans, universal
disassemblers could dismantle the object atom-by-atom and record the process in detail.
The recording of the disassembly could be stored as a protein strand like RNA, or a
punch tape such was used by early computers and interpreted by nanocomputers. The
process in reverse would feature molecular computers directing the assembly of as many
duplicate objects as desired, by creating multiple copies of the recorded instructions for
use by an army of universal assemblers. The assemblers would then carry out their duties
and in very little time the unique object could be re-created.
Today, significant steps are being taken towards achieving the goal of true
nanotechnology in the fields of molecular computation, nanoscale materials design,
nanoscale lithography, and scanning probe microscopy. These research efforts are
forming the basis for our knowledge about nanotechnology and will eventually converge
to enable functioning nanomachines and nanocoputers.
For example, Feynman Prize winner (1995) Nadrian Seeman of New York
University combined synthetic DNA proteins to form octahedrons and cubes which could
could contain instructions for building complex nanoscale materials. Another recent
breakthrough was researched by Collier et.al. (1999) who have designed molecular logic
gates, the basic information storage units for computers, made of roxatane molecules only
a few atoms long. While these people are creating real world products, there are others
who are simulating the possibilities of nanoscale design.
K. Eric Drexler and Ralph Merkle have collaborated on the design of a single
pump, fine motion controller for molecular manufacturing, a differential gear and
recently a six degree of freedom fine motion controller also for nanoscale manufacturing
(Drexler, 1992, IMM 1991-1999). These simulations will eventually include fully
operational designs for supercomputers and much more.
Using scanning tunnelling microscopy, IBM researchers (Crommie, et. al, 1990,
1993, 1995) have drawn the IBM logo and several other designs on metals using single
atoms placed in a pattern. Their research continues and is exploring the possbility of
using this technique to assemble more complex materials.
Possibly the most significant breakthrough has been Richard Smalley's use of
buckminsterfullerene, commonly referred to as "Bucky Balls," which are carbon
spherical molecules, to create "carbon nanotubes" which could be used to transmit
electricity or as a wire in a nanocomputer (Browne, 1998).
In the future, these small breakthroughs will have been overshadowed by the
creation of supercomputers the size of the head of a pin, household replicators, nano
robots which repair damaged human tissue and many other amazing machines. NASA
might one day be able to send a space probe to a distant planet with raw materials which
would be used to create an atmosphere suitable for human habitation. Finally, humans
will be able to repair the environmental damage caused by generations of industrial
pollution here on earth and beautify the world in which we live (Drexler, 1986, Drexler,
1992).
Nanotechnology will one day allow humans to have complete control over the
physical world. The virtual, or psychological world of Cyberspace will give humans
complete control over ideaspace.
Cyberspace, a word first coined by William Gibson in Neuromancer (Gibson,
1984) changed the way science fiction authors conceptualized Virtual Reality (VR).
Derived from the Greek word kybernan, which means to steer, manage or control,
cyberspace describes an immersive, alternate reality where a user has control over the
fundamental laws of their environment. Unfortunately, there lacks a single formal
definition for VR. No single discipline, such as computer science, cognitive psychology
and engineering, have agreed on a definition. Without a universally accepted definition,
disciplines use terms such as VR, virtual environment, virtual spaceand cyberspace
interchangeably.
Credit for the "invention" of VR often goes to Jaron Lanier from VPL research,
the first company that designed products for VR systems. Although Lanier coined the
term and popularized VR, the origin of VR dates back to Morton Heilig's Sensorama
Simulator from 1962, where moviegoers could watch a movie with a wrap-around screen,
stereophonic sound and even enhanced aromas to create the first immersive "VR." Lanier
displays) and other VR based technologies (Burdea & Coiffet, 1994).
Perhaps the best method for describing VR is to examine definitions based on
three fundamental architectures of human understanding, technology, human factors and
language. First, VR can be defined by technological architecture, focusing on specific
technological elements of VR worlds. VR has been described as different technologies.
Stationary cockpit simulators are currently used to train test pilots in virtual planes before
they experience real ones. Telepresence systems alllow the use robotic limbs in a remote
location. Movment in one environment results in action in a remote environment.
Currently, telepresence systems are used in medicine to perform surgery at a distance
(tele-surgery). Telepresence can have even greater impact on the population with the
concept of teledildonics or remote sexual contact. Myron Kruger first designed artificial
reality in 1970 with VIDEOPLACE, where a human user is projected into an artificial
computer environment. Lastly, immersive systems use Lanier's datagloves and head
mounted displays (Rheingold, 1992).
Second, VR can be defined by human architecture, focusing on psychological
elements to define the phenomenon." Cartwright (1994, p. 22) defines VR as “...the
complete computer control of the senses. VR becomes a way of sensing / feeling /
thinking.” With VR, a computer can alter human experience. Recently, research has
focused on the experience of VR and currently defines it by factors such as immersion,
presence and interactivity.
Immersion is often described as the feeling of "being there" requiring the traveler
to suspend disbelief, at least for a period of time. Not only must incredible technical
requirements be met (e.g, interactivity, reduced lag, high image complexity and
resolution, head mounted display, stereopsis, wide field of view) but important cognitive
elements (feelings of being somewhere else, feelings of realism, virtual egocenter,
suspending realitiy) must also be present. Presence is defined as the perception of feeling
physically present in a natural environment while telepresence is the perception of feeling
physically present in a virtual environment. Using the cognitive element of presence as
the basis of definition, VR becomes a form of mediated-reality, where VR mediates
between two environments, the telepresent environment and the real environment.
Virtual worlds must not only be technically realistic but also be able to trick
human mind. A VR traveler can be telepresent in VR but not immersed, and can be
immersed in an artificial environment without feeling telepresent. It would appear that
immersion requires some suspension of reality while telepresence does not. It is still
unclear however, if immersion in an engrossing novel is the same type of immersion as in
a virtual world. Likewise, it is unclear if the feeling of presence in robotic tele-surgery is
the same type of presence experienced while dreaming. Some authors propose that
technology is secondary in the definition of VR (Steuer, 1995); others propose to discard
the term "Virtual Reality" entirely (Heim, 1993; Steuer, 1995).
Third, VR can be defined by language architecture, using metaphors to indirectly
describe the experience, a method best used by science fiction authors. Using a metaphor
to describe a phenomenon can demonstrate a more global concept. Many authors have
used Gibson's cyberspace metaphor as a basic definition or description of VR. Gibson
describes cyberspace as a "consensual hallucination."
VR is often seen as a technology of isolation where the traveler travels alone.
Cyberspace is best defined by Cartwright as “… the sharing of two or more virtual
realities…. Just as virtual reality is a way of sensing, feeling and thinking individually, so
cyberspace becomes a way of communicating, participating, and working together.”
(Cartwright, 1994, p. 22). Benedikt (1991) describes cyberspace as “... a globally
networked, computer-sustained, computer-accessed and computer-generated,
multidimensional, artificial, or virtual reality.” In Gibson's bleak futuristic world,
characters "jack-in" to the Matrix using a neural-direct virtual reality where they immerse
themselves a shared, alternate world. Cyberspace is a metaphor for interaction, a global,
shared alternate reality.
This metaphor for a new reality is demonstrated in Neil Stephenson’s (1992)
Snowcrash, where he conceptualized the Metaverse, his vision of cyberspace. In
Stephenson’s metaverse, travelers explore virtual streets, virtual buildings, virtual transit
and virtual bars, interacting with different "avatars," visual representations of travelers.
Travelers are who they appear to be, each using different avatars, from the high definition
expensive avatars to the cheap, grainy pay-phone identities. In cyberspace, no one knows
you are a dog.
For the purpose of this paper, the word cyberspace will be used to describe the
near perfect metaphorical VR from Gibson or Stephenson where multiple "intelligent
beings" (Carson & Cartwright, 1994), not necessarily real or human, can share a virtual
space that they can shape to their liking. Travelers not only explore a new medium but
partake in a new reality.
Osmose, a VR art piece developed by Char Davies from SoftImage, demonstrates
the power of a VR experience. Davies describes Osmose as a view inside her head.
Travelers wear a head-mounted display and a chest piece that detects inspiration and
expiration of air. Breathing in causes the traveler to float up and breathing out causes the
traveler to sink. Leaning can control movement in any direction. Travelers experience a
virtual world where they can explore inside flora, follow fish and float through a nature
scene. Many users reported exhilarating experiences, "knowing what is is like to be an
angel" and "knowing what it is like to die." It is clear that VR and cyberspace has the
potential to greatly affect human perception and experience.
The impact of this technology is nothing less than astounding. How will the brain
react to “...a land where architecture is liquid, music ephemeral, language incidental,
communication altered, maps distorted, geometry transitory, history imaginary,
geography variable, and space transmuted?” (Cartwright & Zanni, 1996, p. 1).
Fundamental assumptions of reality are altered and imagination becomes a reality.
Both nanotechnology and cyberspace are technologies that attempt to overcome
physical and psychological human limitations. However, these two technologies are not
independent but interdependent. Each technology uses different methods and different
mediums to achieve the same result. Nanotechnology manipulates the physical and
cyberspace manipulates the psychological to enhance human existence. The roles that
these technologies will play will converge and become similar.
This convergence would not be possible without some level of intelligent
computing to interpret human needs. As demonstrated in Stephenson's Diamond Age,
simplification of these technologies and ubiquitous access to them would be a necessity
in order for there to be any societal impact. Therefore, compvergence can be described as
the intelligent symbiosis between humans and machines. Computation can be seen as the
interpreter between humans and machines, the culminating point being compvergence.
The interplay between nanotechnology and cyberspace will result in several converging
themes.
With the propagation of nanotechnology whatever object is needed or desired can
be built by nanomachines. One would only have to feed the nanomachines a simple
instruction in order to complete the task. Cyberspace would allow one to escape the laws
of reality, construct avatars with extra limbs, explore fantasy worlds and experience any
scenario imagined.
With nanotechnology and cyberspace, anything imagined can become a reality,
either virtual or physical. Likewise, verifiable differences between what are considered
real (fact) and imaginary (fiction) become difficult to differentiate. Questions arise such
as: are objects created by nanomachines real? Could farmers distinguish between real
grain and nanomachine-created grain? If a individual falls asleep in a room, is removed
from their bedroom and placed in perfect nano-replication of the room, would the
individual know that they were in a different location?
Cyberspace allows for the creation of objects and situations that could be
considered "real." In cyberspace, if grain is perfectly simulated; where it smells like
grain, feels like grain, and tastes like grain, is it grain? Likewise, if an individual falls
asleep in a room, then placed in cyberspace, in a perfect recreation of their room, upon
awakening, would be possible to determine the difference between reality and virtuality?
If human beings are constructing their own reality as constructivist theory
proposes, then it could be argued that no difference exists between cyberspace and "real
life." As Turkle (1995) discovered in her examination of on-line role-players in MUDs
(MultiUser Dungeons), real-life becomes just another screen to play. As Turkle (1995)
Which screen is "real-life?"
Schizophrenic patients are often described as having lost touch with reality. In the
early 1900s, when the first motion pictures were shown in public theatres, the vivid
imagery of a locomotive hurtling towards the screen created mass panic (Cartwright &
Zanni, 1996; Palmer, 1909; Vorse, 1991). In a world where reality and virtuality are
difficult to differentiate, will society become mentally unstable? Like the first movie
goers, human beings will be forced to adapt to new representations of reality. Can human
beings cope with this added world complexity?
Both technologies will bring humanity from an age of scarcity to an age of
abundance. Nanotechnology will allow for abundance of any physical resource and make
them near-infinitely recyclable. As previously discussed no materials are wasted, no
polluting by-products are produced and environmental impact is minimized. Where
nanotechnology ends, cyberspace begins. Even if all resources were depleted and
products could not be constructed, they could be simulated in virtuality. In cyberspace,
there are no physical laws and limits.
Society will impose abundance, as nanotechnology and cyberspace become
ubiquitous. Scarcity forces human beings to be imaginative in order to overcome their
limitations. With abundance, imagination becomes irrelevant since anything that is
imagined can become real. As a result of this society-imposed abundance, individuals
might seek out forms of existence that would impose scarcity. Individuals might choose
to use "antiques" instead of nano-replicators to create objects merely for the challenge
and enjoyment.
With these technologies, the concept of design will be reengineered. Scarcity
introduces risk to the design process. Waste and inefficiency is costly. Nanotechnology
and cyberspace optimize the use of raw materials, leaving designers to create and recycle
as they choose. Designers are free from dangers of testing. The method of "trial and
error," currently regarded as inefficient, could prove to be a superior method of analysis.
Perfect copies of products can be created immediately and without waste. Since
production is accelerated warehouses become obsolete and inventories pointless.
Products will evolve more quickly since changes to a design, suggested by consumer
feedback or desired by designers, can be prototyped and mass-produced almost
instantaneously. Therefore, the elimination of design constraints will result in an
enhancement and acceleration of the design cycle.
Due to the sophistication of these technologies, no designer can be considered to
be "ahead of one's time." To be "ahead of one's time" implies that technology is not
sufficiently advanced to implement one's ideas. Charles Babbage invented the first
mechanical computer in the mid-1800s. At the time, machining was not precise enough,
1986). In an era of abundance, however, ideas can always be implemented. Even if it
could not be physically possible through nanotechnology, it could always be simulated in
cyberspace. Design methodology in an age of abundance will face few, if any constraints.
In an age of abundance, sectors of the economy will be eliminated. The word
'economy' implies a supply and demand model, also irrelevant in an age of abundance.
Value, currently established by supply and demand, would be measured by aesthetics in
the future. Instead of scarcity based on cost or availability raw materials, scarcity could
become a self-imposed aesthetic preference.
As Stephenson suggests in Diamond Age, human beings might covet "authentic"
items, assigning them special value over nanomachine-created items. Perhaps the natural
flaws of man-made bulk technology could be considered novel and luxurious. Antiques
are ridden with flaws and imperfections, due to their scarcity, might become hyper-
valued and possessed only by society's elite.
Cyberspace would allow human beings to escape to a reality filled with antique
character that might not otherwise exist or be able to be created. In a world of
nanomachine made objects of perfect precision, cyberspace could provide an outlet of
escapism to the "authentic" past, filled with rustic objects which would have the character
and charm that might be missed by society.
Although nanotechnology implies ubiquitous abundance, it is not limitless.
Nanotechnology requires raw materials, which will always be limited in quantity.
Perhaps some materials might be only available to an elite few. The allocation of raw
materials might be stratified according to societal status where the upper class would
have access to more exotic raw materials for their nanomachines.
Access to cyberspace might also be stratified, at least in the early stages of
compvergence. Stephenson's metaverse alluded to a caste system of identity where lower
class avatars are represented by black and white standard designs and upper class avatars
by beautiful customized representations.
Nanotechnology has the potential to extend life. Physical death might be
overcome (or at least greatly delayed) as nanomachines replace medicine enabling the
constant self-repair of human cells. Bodies could be re-engineered and augmented. Skin
could be hardened, pigments changed, joints reinforced with titanium, and hair loss
restored.
Cyberspace allows human beings to immortalize their minds, conquering
psychological death. If cyberspace can be directly interfaced with the human brain, it
might be possible to shed the body entirely and exist as a virtual entity or simply exist as
a brain in a vat. Medicine becomes a psychological pursuit.
Can immortality be achieved? Nanotechnology could maximize the length of a
human life while cyberspace releases the mind from the constraints of the physical world.
Although cheating death might be impossible, nanotechnology and cyberspace could
allow human beings to evolve to a point where death becomes a choice.
When physical reality can be shaped with nanotechnology and personal
interaction can be shaped by cyberspace, education becomes critical. With many of the
limitations of society removed, lifelong learning becomes necessary.
Experiential education becomes a reality, where human beings can not only learn
about a phenomenon in a classroom, but can experience it first hand. The limitations of
the “artificial” classroom are dissolved. Currently, learning is place-bound (attending
classes) and time-bound (according to a teaching schedule). Access to cyberspace allows
human beings to learn anytime, anywhere and anyplace.
Many conclude that cyberspace could provide a highly constructivist and
experiential learning place and could allow users to solve abstract problems in a realistic
environment (Breuer & Kummer, 1990; Dede, 1995; Winn & Bricken, 1992). Dede
(1995) identifies cyberspace as technology-enhanced constructivist learning that provides
realistic opportunities for practice. Learning in virtuality can also transfer to reality
(Henderson, 1991; Shlechter, Bessemer & Kolosh, 1992). Cyberspace might be seen as
the ultimate learning place, where, without limitations, human beings could be free to
explore their own interests.
Nanotechnology allows the miniaturization of computers, which could enable the
construction of a global information network accessible by all. Personal learning tools
could be created that act as learning guides that could process information and conduct
simulations. This technology becomes the ultimate motivational tool by providing
immediate access to knowledge.
Today there exist many barriers to communication, which cause misunderstanding
and ineffective sharing of ideas between individuals. Different languages, both written
and spoken, are obstacles to clear transmission of ideas. The mail, for example, causes a
delay in the transmission of an idea, and while email accelerates the transmission, a delay
still exists. Face to face communication is immediate, however the problem of
comprehension can still remain a barrier to understanding.
which will enable new methods of communication, the translation of ideas, and will serve
and with more effective modalities that can be better understood by the sender and
recipients.
Such new modalities may include universal language translation systems, physical
representation of ideas and emotions, the development of iconographic communication,
and the use of other senses in the transmission of messages. For example, both
technologies could visually communicate emotions. In cyberspace, bodies might glow red
with anger, while with nanotechnology, skin could change color to represent different
emotional states.
Although telepathy, the most effective form of communication, may not be
possible, it could be simulated. Cyberspace could enable transmission of thoughts over
distances where two people transmit ideas in a shared virtual space. Nanomachines could
translate thoughts (electrochemical signals) into radio frequencies that could be beamed
to any location. Nanotechnlogy could also allow floating communications networks
based on nanomachines that identify the proper sender and receiver of messages and
assure transmission using the most effective available modality. These technologies allow
for multimodal communications to exist which will facilitate frictionless thought transfer.
Nanotechnology and cyberspace have potentially utopian and dystopian outcomes.
Utopian possibilities for nanotechnology include such benefits as restoring the
environment, eliminating pollution and opening new possibilities for learning. Dystopian
possibilities of nanotechnology include the destruction of the earth with immortal, self-
replicating nanomachines. Drexler cautions science: "Dangerous replicators could easily
be too tough, small, and rapidly spreading to stop - at least if we made no preparation.
We have trouble enough controlling viruses and fruit flies (Drexler, 1986, p. 172)."
Utopian possibilities of cyberspace include blissful entertainment, the ability to fly and
travel to distant places without leaving home. Dystopian possibilities of cyberspace
include a loss of reality contact, isolation and alienation and reduce human existence to a
brain in a vat. Cartwright and Zanni (1996) discuss many of these possibilities.
Nanotechnology and cyberspace are monster technologies, similar to Pandora's
box. Drexler (1986) proposes that cage technologies need to precede these monster
technologies. Cage technologies must be in place in order to prevent human extinction.
Benedict (1991) proposes seven "laws" in order to create a "cage" cyberspace. Without
guiding principles, cyberspace could have devastating effects.
Two objects cannot exist in the same place at the same time.
Principle of Maximal Exclusion
In every successive embedded world, there are fewer data points than in the
world that includes it.
Principle of Indifference
The world must be indifferent to the user.
Principle of Scale
to the complexity of the space through which it occurs.
Principle of Transit
Movement must traverse intervening space and involve some cost.
Principle of Personal Visibility
One cannot enter a space invisibly.
Principle of commonality
The bandwidth of communication between two people in cyberspace is a
function of the size of the overlap of their world (Finkelstein, 1998).
Drexler proposes several recommendations for the successful caging of
nanotechnology.
A technology must be in place to contain nanomachines within impenetrable
walls to prevent assemblers from using the world as a source of raw material
for unlimited replication
Limited Assemblers
Assemblers must only be able to self-replicate a finite number of times before
losing their ability to self-replicate. Hindering nanomachine evolution is
critical, limiting evolution or self-replication to only 'healthy' and identical
copies of the original.
Active Shields
Nanomachines should be designed that will float in the atmosphere acting as
shields which serve to protect humans from not only viruses and bacteria, but
also hostile or harmful replicators.
Both technologies shape reality. Nanotechnology has the potential to engineer
reality to suit the human imagination. Cyberspace has the potential to engineer virtuality
to suit the human imagination. The end result of these technologies is the same. It can be
argued that at this convergence, there will be no discernable difference between virtuality
and reality, making differentiation between "inward" and "outward" technologies
irrelevant. Both technologies allow human beings to shape their surroundings in any
manner they choose. Both provide multi-sensoral interaction with the environment and
other intelligent beings.
Perhaps the study of these technologies will force science to re-examine
fundamental principles of what makes us human. Likewise, these technologies give us a
glimpse of the future of humanity. Will human beings merely be "brains in vats"? Is
utopia possible? Is the human species evolving? Will human beings as physical 'designs'
be necessary for a new global reality in which the constraints of the body are overcome?
What will human beings do in an age of abundance? Each of these questions merits
discussion to be psychologically prepared for possibilities on the road to the future.
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